| Risk Management - Choosing the Best Aerial Platform |
There are few human activities in our world that are without risk. Working in groups or alone, humans face challenges from the environment, from themselves and others. There are a variety of elements involved in risk management. First, we must understand our activities, as well as the inherent and potential risks. We must combine this knowledge with the application of sound mitigation practices. The following model is designed to provide an awareness and a method to assess the factors and elements that must be considered when planning a project using aircraft.
| Man-Machine-Mission - A Model for Risk Management |
This model is a practical tool for determining whether or not the factors described below will add up to a situation that will minimize risk. The same model, although it may not have been specifically intended as such, is an excellent tool for determining the most cost effective and efficient combination to meet the objectives of a particular air operation.
Although simple in it's graphic form, the user must have a basic understanding of the skills, equipment, mission parameters and operational environment to be able to make use of this model. The descriptions below will give an explanation of these factors as well as some examples given in the context of Wildlife Research, Aerial Reconnaissance and Air Taxi.
The components of this model are comprised of the Environment, Man, Machine, and Mission. Each component is intertwined and affected by the other; changes in one factor will impact other factors.
The environment can be described best as the accumulation of all of the factors that are beyond our direct control in which we must find ways to operate successfully. We live and work in a land with diverse climates and a variety of landscapes. Seasonal weather changes can modify this aspect of our environment placing additional challenges on the other factors. Weather is an ever-present factor in risk management. We do not have control over the elements and the effects of weather (think of weather as temperature wind, sky condition, visibility, wind, turbulence and local phenomena). As an environmental factor, terrain will have the most impact on our choices due to the performance and human factors that will be encountered working within it. The reason that weather is slightly less important than terrain is that we can wait for the weather to change but terrain changes take millennia. In any case, asking the question “Do we really need to fly today?” will be an easy way to determine how much risk we are willing to accept.
The operating environment is more than terrain and climate alone. Some examples of additional factors include access to maintenance facilities, fueling methods and availability, frequency of flight operations, base location (remote, small community or city based) size of operating area, access to communications, crew availability and logistical support. The management policies and methods of both the client and the air operator will be a part of the operating environment as well as regulatory agencies that oversee air operations and workplace health and safety . Insurance, employment equity and aboriginal issues are increasing concerns of the operational environment.
It is important to determine all of these factors that make up the operating environment and reflect upon the effect of each when combined with the other elements of this model.
Under the appropriate conditions, an aircraft can be an invaluable asset in support of mission objectives. Misused, it can be expensive and potentially dangerous.Typically, aircraft are deployed on missions that have little to do with flying. Data collection, photography, reconnaissance as well as wildfire detection and control are just a few examples of typical missions aside from the everyday transportation of people, goods and equipment from one place to another.
Understanding how an aircraft can be utilized in the completion of a mission is the first step toward choosing the type or types of aerial platform(s) as well as exploiting the best abilities of each aircraft in a safe and cost-effective manner.
Every rotary and fixed-wing aircraft has structural and performance limitations . Mission requirements can exceed the limitations of any aircraft regardless of how versatile the aircraft design or the flight crew skills. Pushing an aerial platform into use where it is not suitable has cost lives. In broad-based applications, there may be suitable aircraft but no single aircraft type can perform in every possible mission. Contracting a second aircraft of an alternative capability is the safest way to complete a multi-dimensional mission. If a second aircraft is not available and the primary aircraft cannot meet all of the mission requirements then it is the mission that may need to be modified to remain safe and cost effective.
- Technology helps! Advances in technology can broaden the capability of the aerial platform. For example, Forward Looking Infra-Red (F.L.I.R.) systems can allow a fast moving aircraft to cover large expanses of land over extended flight times as compared to the old method of flying a slow-moving aircraft at low altitude and visually searching for wildfires, counting wildlife or locating lost persons.
Power-line and pipeline patrols can use methane-sniffing detection gear and Infra-Red cameras to locate hot spots or detect leaks with greater success than much slower visual techniques. Satellite telephone has extended the safe area of operations for both helicopter and fixed wing aircraft while operating from remote locations where land-line and cellular communication are impossible.
- Global Position Satellite (GPS) navigation has proven to be invaluable as a tool where pin-point accuracy is required. Locating remote helicopter landing sites, or logging data from flown routes or flying precise grid patterns are just a few ways that GPS has made flying safer and more reliable.
- Improvements in animal capture techniques and net-guns have reduced the risk to animal capture crews (and the animals). Small, light-weight antennae have reduced the risk of in-flight failures of non-aviation approved products.
The Human element of risk management can be as varied as the environment.Pilot qualifications alone are not inadequate for determining the ability of a pilot or their suitability for a particular mission. Qualifications are intended to satisfy regulatory requirements and may be used in prescreening applicants or meeting insurance requirements but they do not give a complete account of the pilot’s ability to operate the aircraft at the level of performance required for the intended mission parameters or operating environment.
The application of skills is dependant upon the knowledge and practical experience of a pilot. Knowledge of aircraft performance and limitations, local and regional weather, and the mission will allow the pilot to assess safety and performance concerns. A pilot with good communication skills can increase both safety and efficiency of flight operations.
Most pilots can learn quickly and develop additional skills if a quality training program is available to them. Training that involves practical experience in a controlled environment is the fastest and safest way to ensure that the flight crew can achieve mission specifications.
Possessing the necessary knowledge is only one aspect to consider; a pilot must use judgment in the application of decision-making and flying skills. Sound judgment and wisdom is borne from experience in the trial and error of applying the methods and techniques received in training; surviving the experience and learning from it.
When scrutinizing potential air operators for contract, pilot(s) experience should play a major part in the selection. With the growth of the airlines and high rate of retirements, pilots are very upwardly mobile and in demand. Knowing an air operator has access to more than one pilot with a sufficient level of experience and training may be essential to maintain consistency in long-term projects. The experience of the Chief Pilot and the relevance of the Air Operator’s flight and mission training program(s) should also be considered. Any air operator that is unwilling to divulge this information to prospective clients should be avoided.
Human factors such as stress, fatigue, distraction and illness must be considered when evaluating the human element of risk management. If the mission or environment requires flight operations to be maintained at peak levels intensity, it may be necessary to have multiple flight crews or a flexible schedule for flight operations.
The machine element in the M3 model is the aircraft. Aircraft come in all sizes and shapes, each with a particular capability. The laws of physics limit what each design is capable of doing. Whether fixed-wing or rotary aircraft, there are a few truisms that hold fast with aircraft.Finding an aircraft that will be operated within the mission parameters and the operational environment will determine the safety and efficiency of a flight program. There are questions that must be asked in order to select the best aircraft for the job. It may be necessary to have more than one aircraft available to accomplish all of the mission requirements. The list below will provide just a few of the performance considerations to be reviewed.
Range: How far can the aircraft fly between refueling stops? Some aircraft have a significant range but can only refuel at airports that have long runways or special fuelling equipment. In some cases, the operational area is a considerable distance from the main base. In that situation, knowing how fast the aircraft can get to the planned area and how long it can stay in the area will determine what machine can accomplish both. Few aircraft can fly both fast and slow well. Slower aircraft are often limited in range, particularly helicopters which may require fuel caches to be placed along main routes of travel when operating from a remote location. Fixed-wing aircraft may not have the ability to land and refuel within the prime operating area and may require extended fuel capacity.
Endurance: How long can the aircraft and crew remain working in the operational area? Aircraft fuel availability can be a challenge due to the landing requirements of some aircraft. Helicopters have the advantage of being able to land almost anywhere and many fixed-wing aircraft have the advantage of long mission endurance times. Some smaller single and multi-engine aircraft can stay airborne for more than 6 hours where few helicopters can remain airborne for more than 2.5 to 3 hours.
Load capacity: What weight and volume of cargo, equipment or people is required to be carried? Most aircraft that are designed to carry heavy or bulky loads give up some speed in favor of lifting capacity. In some cases, when lightly loaded, these aircraft can carry substantially more fuel, extending both range and endurance. Alternatively, aircraft with excellent range or endurance may suffer when carrying larger loads.
Speed: Aircraft designed to be fast are often smaller in cabin size and less comfortable than slower designs. Where the design is the same, additional power is used to gain speed, which will decrease both range and endurance. With the exception of a few aircraft modified with STOL (Short Take-Off/Landing) accessories, faster aircraft generally do not fly well at low speeds. Work such as flying at low-level doing animal counts or pipe-line patrol are the safest when using helicopters such as the Bell Jet-Ranger or very slow moving high-wing utility aircraft like the Piper Cub. The disadvantage of these slow aircraft is the limited range. Many fast aircraft can have long range capability but are unable to land on rough runways or forestry airstrips. Generally the faster or more flexible the performance of the aircraft, the higher the cost per/hour. Despite the higher hourly cost, efficiency and practicality will compensate for the higher cost. The cost of safety, although difficult to assess, should be the biggest factor in determining which is the best aircraft for the job; it is far easier to determine the cost of an accident.
Climb or lifting ability: Many applications require heavy-lift capability. There are a number of aircraft designed to lift heavy loads from heli-logging to cargo hauling. These aircraft will have variations in the altitudes in which they can operate safely due to decreasing performance with increasing altitude and temperatures.
Visibility from interior of A/C: Some aircraft, while technically capable of performing within the mission requirements, do not provide sufficient visibility for the pilot or crew when considering the terrain, weather and mission. There is considerable debate among pilots about high-wing vs. low-wing designs as well as the downward and forward visibility on certain helicopters. Modifications to windows and doors can overcome some of these problems; however, these modifications are usually limited to slower moving aircraft.
Landing surface and length required: Helicopters can land almost anywhere. Some specialized fixed-wing aircraft can land or take-off in very short distances but require a smooth surface on which to operate. Similarly, many types of utility aircraft can land in short distances on marginally prepared surfaces. In general, the larger the machine, the greater the load or the faster it flies, the greater the length or area required for take-off and landings. Pilots should have experience operating from limited or unimproved aerodromes.
Maneuverability: Fixed-wing aircraft are built to withstand certain "G"; loads. That means that the increased load to the wings during steep turns or abrupt maneuvers must not exceed the design limits of the aircraft. For aircraft involved in reconnaissance in mountainous terrain or pounding through the turbulence associated with hail or fire suppression, high-load tolerance is mandatory. Most aircraft that are designed for basic point-to-point travel of passengers are not designed for the rigors of frequent maneuvering. Similarly, helicopter rotor design will limit the maneuverability of some machines, especially those designed for heavy-lift capacity. Smaller and lighter machines are more maneuverable and some, like the Bell 500, are virtually aerobatic, making them ideal for aerial wildlife management. Maneuverability may come at the expense of comfort and capacity.
Weather tolerance: Some aircraft may suffer a considerable performance loss when subjected to ice, snow or rain. Aircraft that must operate in a wide variety of weather conditions must be approved for operation in known icing conditions. These aircraft must be equipped with advanced avionics in order to navigate under extreme conditions. Regardless of the capability of the aircraft or the pilot; terrain and mission requirements may place limits on the type of weather that can be flown.
Avionics and mission adaptability: Many small aircraft have limited space or electrical load generation to power specialized equipment or to operate significant navigation systems. If a larger aircraft is selected for this reason, it is important to ensure that it is also capable of the flight characteristics demanded by the mission.
Maintenance facility: Some aircraft require specialized equipment and personnel to complete the scheduled maintenance for the aircraft.. For example, some aircraft may have life-limited parts, meaning that at a certain number of operating hours the parts must be replaced. If the proposed area of operations is distant from a suitable maintenance facility, expect potentially long delays or have more than one aircraft available for the project. A few helicopters and many single and multi-engine fixed-wing aircraft can easily be maintained in the field with the exception of major repairs or items requiring specialized tools or testing of components.
Availability of Experienced Flight Crew: Change can be a factor that will increase risk. Changing pilots in the middle of a project can have consequences. Planners should make allowances for change. If the pilot(s) skills are a key element of the flight operations then having more than one pilot available may be preferable. Alternatively, hiring a aviation company that has pilots with long-term employment history on the preferred aircraft type or specialization in the type of flying required will reduce turn-over and improve both safety and consistency.
Service Ceiling: Most fixed-wing and helicopters have a maximum altitude at which they can effectively operate. This is an essential performance consideration in mountainous areas or very hot climates.
Single-engine vs. Multi-engine Piston aircraft: Flying in prairie and tundra areas in a single-engine fixed-wing aircraft posses minimal risk, in the event of engine failure. When flying over vast tracts of forested areas or in the mountains, a multi-engine aircraft should be considered essential for most applications. Turbine engines have a very high reliability compared with piston engines but there are few light single-engine aircraft with this power plant. Most light helicopters use turbine power with a few notable exceptions. If operating in mountainous areas, piston-powered helicopters should be avoided.
Single-engine Ceiling: Multi-engine aircraft provide an increased measure of safety when operating in mountainous or remote areas where suitable landing surfaces are few and far between. The performance loss when operating on a single engine may not be adequate to climb above the surrounding terrain. This is especially true for most light, twin-engine, piston-powered aircraft. Unless the multi-engine aircraft can provide adequate performance on one engine to return to base, it will be only marginally safer than a single-engine aircraft.
Ability to modify for specialized equipment: Hard-Points on wings will allow for additional equipment to be attached to the underside of wings. Like-wise, certain designs of wing struts and gear legs may allow for the attachment of camera and other gear. Each aircraft will need this equipment and the installation to be approved. Some aircraft are less suitable for camera portals due to the location of flight control pulleys and exhaust systems. Many camera and antennae mounts have been designed for the most popular helicopters such as the Bell Jet-Ranger. The ability for slow moving helicopters to carry external loads allows for quicker design and engineering approvals for specialized equipment. The benefit of consulting an expert in these areas is obvious.
Helicopter vs. fixed wing: Helicopters and fixed-wing aircraft are very different machines with unique performance capabilities. For best efficiency, helicopters should be used for short hops carrying people and equipment into places that a fixed-wing aircraft cannot land. Heli-logging, long-lining seismic equipment, water-bucketing, aerial wildlife capture and other similar tasks, simply cannot be done safely with fixed-wing aircraft. Animal or other low-level surveys would indicate the use of a helicopter. The ability to hover and fly very slowly is invaluable when maneuvering through areas with many obstacles. Photographic surveys, cursory pipeline patrols, fire detection, aerial telemetry and operations over extended ranges would indicate the use of fixed-wing aircraft for maximum efficiency as well as safety. Generally, helicopters are safe machines despite the high rate of accidents found in Transport Canada’s annual accident statistics. The nature of helicopter operations or any low altitude flying, for that matter, is riskier than the majority of point-to-point flying. The rate of failure of lift and control producing components is somewhat higher than fixed-wing aircraft due to the additional stress and vibration of rotary-wing design. If the work can be done effectively in a fixed-wing aircraft it will be safer and more cost effective than a helicopter. Trying to use a fixed-wing aircraft to do work that is best suited to a helicopter is dangerous as well as inefficient.
Conclusion: There are many elements that must mesh together in order to create a safe and efficient flight operation. Using the M3 model we must look at the area where all of the elements overlap. When the pilot, aircraft and mission can work within the operating environment, only then can we consider that the risk is within tolerable levels.Michael Dupuis July 2004 iI first learned the application of this model as a student in 1975. A search of the Internet reveals this model and similar models in use by the US military and other organizations; however, I was unable to determine the origin or author of this particular model. The model is paraphrased and derived from memory as well as enhanced by my personal experience so please forgive any discrepancies between this and the original, wherever it may be. iiTransport Canada licenses and regulates all air operators. Always confirm that the air service is licensed and obtain a copy of the charter tariff and operating certificate for verification. iiiOccupational Health and Safety issues affect both the client and air operators while using aircraft. Most clients will fall under provincial guide-lines while air operators fall under federal guide-lines. ivAn aerial platform is the combination of aircraft, equipment and crew. vThe word man is not intended to confer gender to a crew-member. The terminology was derived from a time before the new-speak laws came into effect in 1984. The term man can mean man or woman equally and without bias. viThe word "Pilot" as used can also mean flight crew or the total compliment of flight personnel that will be operating the aircraft. viiCopywrite laws in effect. For permission to use any part of this document or the document in it's entirety please contact the author via email: pilot@nucleus.com The views and opinions expressed in this document or on this website are of the author and may not necessarily reflect the opinion of the Internet service. No effort has been made to confirm the validity of statements made. |